So if we agree that all humans are one species and all there is to human life, is life itself (previous blogs), then what should be our values and how should we behave? Simplistically, we could behave like all other species of animals, protect ourselves and live in the moment. Why care about what happens to others who are not family or relatives? And stand by while people starve, steal, abuse each other or fight to the death?

How much should we be responsible for other members of our species? In our privileged societies it is easy to stand back and let the rest of the world go its own way. We ignore poverty in other parts of the world; overlook the millions living in slums in Brazil and India; accept the oppression of minorities in China, and the degrading treatment of peasants in North Korea to the benefit of the elite. Should this be the status quo? Other animals do not know what is happening to the rest of their species, but we are acutely aware of human misery elsewhere in the world. And what if we were the ones who were suffering? So, solely because of our awareness of our human kin, we should strive to improve their conditions. But how can we help others if their governments insist on their independence and refuse to permit access to those in need? This is the role of organisations linked to the United Nations, which could, through pressure from the representatives of a majority of countries, insist on being allowed to access, monitor and give aid where needed. The common needs of all humans should triumph over nationalist paranoia.

And what are the common needs of all humans? Basically, sustenance and security, which translates into enough food, a warm dry house, freedom from oppression and other dangers, access to health services and education, and freedom of belief, provided of course that the last does not interfere with the freedoms of others. These needs are included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which, unfortunately, seems to have been overlooked and ignored in recent years. The rise of Capitalism has placed emphasis on the provision of jobs and higher productivity as the only route to human well-being, but these are only means to a goal which invariably benefits the affluent lucky few and too frequently exploits other humans on the way. We could do much better.

As for all vertebrate animals, human existence can be viewed as three states or events: Birth, Life, Death. We are born, we live for varying amounts of time, then we die. The state of being alive, obviously has greater significance for us as a species, as we are constantly and intimately aware of our existence. We have memory and imagination, so we can look both backwards and forwards in our lives. And our psychological and physical needs have led to humans creating a complex web of beliefs and behaviours which often persist for many generations.

But, back to basics, we are born, we live, we die. There is nothing outside of this. No one has ever proved that humans, alone of all the many animal species, has an existence before birth or after death. There are no fairies, ghosts, demons, lost souls, gods or angels; no reincarnation, no second life, no essence of any kind that persists after a human dies and her/his body recombines with the world.

This is not to ignore or overlook the many beliefs, both religious and non-scientific which have arisen over many millennia in attempts to understand, explain and control human lives. They have functioned and, for many millions, still function to give meaning to their lives and provide frameworks for human behaviour. However, given that there is nothing outside our existence between birth and death, all religions, cults and other beliefs are the products of human imagination. It’s all fantasy. As one example of many, Ancient Egyptians believed that the Sun goes into another place after it sets, and that the Pharaoh had the divine power to bring it back at sunrise. Hence the elaborate structures, pyramids etc., provided by the whole population for the dead pharaohs to protect them while carrying out this role. It is surprising that no one, over thousands of years, realised that the sun does not set but that Egypt rotates away from it.

However, if one accepts our basic animal existence, that all we have is one life, and that all beliefs and strictures on human behaviour are the varied products of our imagination, where do we find our values and guidance on how to behave?

Despite all our protestations to the contrary, we are animals. With a more complex consciousness I concede, but basically animals. And, as scientists have agreed for many years, we are all of one species – Homo sapiens. As such, with no sub-species, or any other scientific division, we are all the same. Irrespective of superficial features such as skin colour, hair and eye colour, or height, weight, sex or age, we are all members of one species, and equal.

Historically, there have been many attempts to re-classify some of us as different animals, as less than fully human, as less needy of attention or respect. Many societies have deemed some of their citizens less worthy, unequal and in many instances, such as by Nazi Germany, only fit to be exploited and even exterminated. At other times and in various countries, humans have been, and still are, divided into a hierarchy of classes, with some regarded as superior to others and the inferior ones largely excluded from society or tolerated as long as they carried out the menial tasks. None of these invidious divisions, or accompanying value judgments have any basis in biology or any other scientific discipline.

Similarly, there is no scientific reason to downgrade or devalue individual humans on the basis of sex, gender, age or physical characteristics. Despite religious dogma and other beliefs, economic circumstances, nationalism and cults, we are all human and all equally entitled to respect, sustenance and security. When leaders claim difference and superiority for their followers, it is they, the leaders, who are less than human.

As animals, we need to learn from other species. A cow is a cow no matter its colour, and dogs recognise and react instinctively to other dogs regardless of breed, size, sex, age or circumstance of meeting. Any superiority we claim or practice when in contact with other humans is the result of false belief arising from history or education. It is time to stop believing and start thinking.

The Covid-19 pandemic has had some positive outcomes, one of which is reemergence of the realisation that we are all human and, as the old saw goes: If we don’t hang together we will all hang separately! The need to isolate to prevent the spread of infection, has, paradoxically, resulted in much more social cooperation. In a very short space of time, people have realised that some neighbours, alone or in pairs, have always been isolated and, despite social distancing, it is important they are checked on and helped with obtaining food and other essentials. Previously, before the pandemic, one behaved as belonging to a tribe centred around work, education, music or leisure activities, and people who occupied the same building or street were overlooked and sometimes deliberately ignored.

Early humans had to be tribal to survive and despite individual differences and occupations they had to cooperate to ensure everyone was fed and safe from predators. It seems that our earlier tribes, like current ones, numbered around 50 -150. Nothing much has changed – we are all happier in moderately sized familiar groups. However, the need for social distancing has broken the cohesion of our normal and familiar tribal structure and created an unfamiliar separation. This in turn has led to the realisation that there are others around us who lack the benefits of being in a tribe.

But a tribe is made up of relatives and friends of different ages. The elders have traditionally provided their knowledge and experience; mature adults do whatever work is necessary; youths may also work, but are learning their roles, and the youngest are cared for, taught and fed. The Covid-19 pandemic has disrupted the tribal structure. Elders are at the greatest risk and need to be carefully protected in isolation; many workers have lost their jobs, cannot contribute as they would like and are often confined to babysitting and teaching roles. But what about the youths?

Young people are at the least risk of serious illness due to the virus and are looking for a role. This is their opportunity to make a worthwhile contribution to their tribe and society as a whole. They could be the models of how to behave during the pandemic. With training, and after testing negative to the virus, they could circulate in their neighborhoods and provide instruction on how best to prevent transfer of infection, visit the isolated, deliver food and other supplies, entertain and educate the youngest and, with suitable precautions, even provide company for their elders in isolation. Here also is an opportunity for youth groups such Scouts and Guides to explore new roles in society.

Now you know about the friendly bacteria in your colon, about how important they are to health and how to keep them happy. The critical issue is: if you feed them well they will thrive, and so will you. So let’s look at a few issues involving the colon and health.

Colonic irrigation. A fashionable treatment promoted by so-called wellness clinics. This is based on the belief that the sole purpose of the colon is to store waste products before they are voided as poo, and that cleaning the colon makes it healthier. A bit like cleaning the drains! But as you now understand, washing out the bacteria which should be there is an unhealthy act. So avoid the poo fairy at all costs!

Starvation. Another health fad promoted by various religions as well as wellness clinics. But to maintain a healthy biome in the colon it needs to be fed. A healthy colon is one which is full of bacteria and the substances they feed on. Depriving the bacteria of essential foods helps no one.

Faecal transplants. Occasionally, for a variety of reasons, the colon is invaded by bacteria which are not normally found there and which cause illness. One approach to a cure is to inject, through the anus into the colon, a sample of faeces from a normal person – to reestablish the normal biome. There are two aspects which need consideration. Firstly, it is doubtful that anyone with medical training would know to recognise normal healthy activity in the colon of the donor (previous blogs), and secondly, unless the newly introduced ‘right’ bacteria are fed correctly they will die out.

Prebiotics and probiotics. A few of the colon bacteria have been isolated and are sold commercially in the form of yoghourt or capsules and promoted for colon health. Again, a couple of comments. Firstly, few bacteria pass successfully through the stomach, as it produces acid designed specifically to prevent the passage of pathogens, and secondly, as we have discovered previously, the persistence of plenty of friendly bacteria in the colon depends on them being fed well. Other products consisting of soluble fibres also purport to promote colon health, but as described before, a healthy colon diet is composed of a many components.

Diseases of the colon. This is not the place to list or discuss the causes of disease and other unhealthy conditions which involve the colon. Suffice to say that some of these are the direct result of the colon not functioning well and to the lack of a healthy biome. Prevention surely depends on being aware of ‘the other’ – the friendly bacteria, and looking after them, so that together we can be happy and healthy.

Having read the previous two blogs I hope you now agree that the colon and its contents – friendly bacteria, are important. The next question is: how do I keep my colon and its contents healthy? And the answer is to keep them well fed! But as before, our knowledge is very sparse. As pointed out previously there are many species of bacteria in the colon. This diversity is known from DNA analysis of samples of poo. But the many types of bacteria live normally in a situation with little oxygen (anaerobes), and are difficult to culture and identify outside of their normal home, the colon, so we do not know what food each needs specifically in order to survive.

But do not despair! As this association with our friendly bacteria has evolved over many millennia during our hunter-gatherer history, we can make the assumption that they will still thrive on what they needed in the past. And if we feed them a variety of colon foods, there should be something for everyone! The secret to keeping your colon healthy is to ensure the bacteria are healthy by providing them with a wide variety of substances which we would otherwise term ‘indigestible’. Modern diets are highly digestible as they consist of good quality proteins, carbohydrates and fats. We tend to avoid what could be called ‘roughage’. Recent research has suggested we need to eat fibre in order to ‘keep regular’, but a healthy colon diet is much more than that.

What you need to find is a store that sells bulk foods, usually organic. You can buy small amounts of a wide range of colon foods and mix them at home. Here is what you could use:

Barley -rolled; Oat bran; Brown rice -flakes or puffs; Amaranth – puffs; Millet – puffs; Sorghum – puffs; Linseed – ground; Pumpkin seeds (Pepitos); Buckwheat (see *); Almonds, whole (see *); Wheat seeds (see *); Walnuts; Hazelnuts; Peanuts# Kelp powder (small amount).

*Buckwheat, almonds and wheat roasted on a plate in a microwave add flavour and crunchiness to the mixture. # Avoid peanuts if allergic to them.

A few spoonfuls of this mixture can be eaten at breakfast with fresh or cooked fruits in summer and added to porridge in winter. Dried apricots, prunes, figs, etc are also valuable.

In addition, it would pay to change your behaviour when eating fresh fruits and include the skins and cores of apples and pears, and the skins of kiwi fruit.

So having accepted that not all of you is you, and that the colon bacteria assist in the breakdown of substances in human foods which cannot be digested in the small intestine, what are the implications of this partnership? Let’s start with the colon itself, which is an integral part of you. This is the largest organ in the abdomen, and so one presumes it must be important. It has evolved to provide a home for the bacteria and to assist in the slow breakdown of the colon foods – let’s call this ‘fermentation’. So the function of the colon has evolved to include an activity in which it contracts into temporary pockets or bulges which serve to mix the contents forwards and backwards.

Fermentation of the contents of the colon results in the production of soluble substances and gas. The latter is voided, as you well know, through the anus. Even the most eminent amongst us fart! But what about the other products of fermentation? This is where our ignorance is supreme. We know very little about what the bacteria produce and even less about how they affect us. As the colon is well supplied with blood vessels, these substances are absorbed and carried throughout the body. If, as we know, the association between us and our friendly bacteria is very ancient and long-standing, the substances they produce are likely to be important in human health. Research is starting to show connections between the colon bacteria and the immune system, for example. Perhaps some common human illnesses are the direct result of a lack of the substances which the bacteria produce, because of our poor diet (See next blog on how to keep the colon healthy).

But how does the colon work? Because of our diets of highly refined foods, most digestion occurs in the small intestine and little indigestible material passes into the colon. However, when our friendly bacteria are well fed (see next blog) the colon is full of fermenting material. There is a reflex which links the stomach with the colon, so that when we take in food, this triggers an emptying movement in the colon. Food in faeces out. So it is normal to want to visit a toilet 20 minutes to half an hour after a meal. Furthermore, the colon and its bacteria keep working all night while we sleep, so it is normal to want to poo when we wake up. Absorption of fermentation products from the colon while we are asleep may be the most important aspect of our association with our friendly bacteria. Sleep is our time of recovery for more than one reason.

If I were to say that part of you is not you, your response would be disbelief. I am not talking about artificial hips or other implants, but the fact that a part of all humans is not human. We are, like so many other animals and plants, in a symbiotic relationship – a partnership with other life forms. And furthermore, we have evolved to enhance this partnership, as it is of mutual benefit.

The non-human part of us comprises the bacteria which live in the colon. This population of billions, comprising many different species, live in harmony with us, and the human colon has evolved to take advantage of their presence. So why are they there and how do we gain from their activities?

Many other mammals have ‘biomes’ (the recent trendy term for resident populations of other organisms), and perhaps the most well-known is that which populates the stomach of cows and other ruminants. And the bovine example can suggest why these biomes exist. In the case of ruminants, their function is to break down the grasses and other plants which cows eat. You might ask: which came first the herbivorous cow or its biome. We can only assume they – the cow with its specialised stomach, and the organisms which live there, evolved together.

So back to we humans and our bacterial friends living in the colon. The latter have a similar function to those in ruminants – they break down substances which we have not evolved to digest. In this case, the hard coverings of seeds and nuts, the fibres in plant foods and grains and otherwise indigestible starches. Our association with the colon bacteria evolved during the long time when our ancestors were hunter-gatherers and relied for food mainly on plants, fruits and wild cereals and less on the occasional animal they killed.

This association between us and our colon biome is of great importance to human health but, unfortunately, because it has been regarded as just waste management, has been little studied. The implications of our intimate relationship with the contents of our colons will be covered in subsequent posts. In the meantime, you could start to pay some attention to the dietary needs of your internal friends.

In the midst of the coronavirus pandemic with all the new rules and regulations it is easy to overlook why it started. We just pray that we will remain safe and that everything will return to ‘normal’ when it is over. When there is a vaccine against Covid-19 and we can go back to touching, hugging and kissing strangers we will, if we survive, look back on the disaster and it will become just another part of modern history. Where were you during the coronavirus outbreak? What was it like for you? we will ask.

But let’s recall once again that we are animals and that the constrictions on the behaviour of other mammals also apply to us. Viruses, like other parasitic organisms need certain conditions to survive and to multiply. If Virus A normally infects an individual animal of a certain species, it needs to infect another individual of the same species to be able to multiply before that animal’s immune system gets it under control. And to make the jump to a new ‘host’ there has to be another uninfected animal of the same species and close contact between them.

A second consideration is that viruses evolve, like all life forms. Sometimes by chance, they may change enough to be able to infect a different species of host. It seems likely that Covid-19, a virus that normally infects bats, changed so that it became also able to infect humans. This is not the first time that bat viruses have ‘jumped’ to humans or that we have become susceptible to the diseases affecting other animals.

The critical issue here, and in all epidemics, is closeness of contact between the hosts. And in our case, closeness with other humans and with the animal species we exploit. We live in densely populated cities: we interact daily with many other humans; we confine large populations of farm animals together; we are in close contact with pets and some wildlife species. Pandemics caused by new viruses are inevitable and unavoidable. And, of course, if you wish to greatly increase the chance of being infected with a new virus, take a trip on a cruise ship, calling at many ports around the world, thereby sampling all the local infectious agents, and be confined with a couple of thousand others while eating and socialising in close proximity!

Will the latest coronovirus emergency become a worldwide pandemic? Will this be a repeat of the outbreak of Spanish Flu which killed tens of millions after World War1? Do you think it surprising that Science and modern medicine cannot anticipate and control such events?  Will it happen again? Of course!

Viruses and other pathogens regularly and inevitably evolve to overcome the immune systems of their hosts in order to survive. And sometimes their renewed ability to infect one species enables them to infect other hosts. Viruses which usually only infect one species such as chickens or bats can change to also infect humans. The chance of this happening is greatly increased if the usual host becomes in close contact with humans, as when wildlife are killed for food or made captive for other reasons. The Lyssavirus,  closely allied to the rabies virus, but which normally only infects fruit bats, for example, can cause severe infections in humans when wildlife rescuers rear orphaned or injured bats.

Viruses and other pathogens are spread more easily when the hosts are concentrated into a small space and the chance of transmission by contact or through aerosols, urine or faeces is increased. This is rare amongst wildlife species as the individual animals are well dispersed. A bat colony is an exception. But when large numbers of people live and work in close proximity in cities the opportunity for the spread of viruses is greatly increased. Large populations of people need reliable food supplies and these are provided by farms which rear and maintain food animals such as chickens and pigs in small areas. So the chance of an animal virus evolving to infect humans and the chance of that virus spreading rapidly through the population is greatly increased. A further aspect of the present epidemic is the possibility that the new virus came from wildlife which were being used for human food.

We humans are clever enough to devise ways to combat epidemics with vaccines and to treat those who are infected, but we seem incapable of changing our behaviour to avoid the risk of them happening in the first place.